Tip-1
Disk Clean Up
1)Click Start
2)Click run
3)Type Cleanmgr
4)Click OK
5)Select C: Drive
6)Click Ok
7)Check all the options in Files to delete
8)Click Ok
Tip: 2
Disk Defragment:
1)Open My Computer
2)Right Click C: Drive- Properties
3)Select Tools Tab
4)Click Defragment Now
Sunday, August 16, 2009
Types of Disk Formatting
There are two types of formats to consider:
-Physical, or low-level
-Logical, or high-level
When you format a floppy disk, the DOS FORMAT command performs both kinds of formats simultaneously. To format a hard disk, however, you must perform the operations separately. Moreover, a hard disk requires a third step, between the two formats, in which the partitioning information is written to the disk. Partitioning is required because a hard disk is designed to be used with more than one operating system. Separating the physical format in a way that is always the same, regardless of the operating system being used and regardless of the high-level format (which would be different for each operating system), makes possible the use of multiple operating systems on one hard drives. The partitioning step allows more than one type of operating system to use a single hard disk or a single DOS to use the disk as several volumes or logical drives. A volume or logical drive is anything to which DOS assigns a drive letter.
Consequently, formatting a hard disk involves three steps:
1. Low-Level Formatting (LLF)
2. Partitioning
3. High-Level Formatting (HLF)
During a low-level format, the disk's tracks are divided into a specific number of sectors. The sector header and trailer information is recorded, as are intersected and inter track gaps. Each sector's data area is filled with a dummy byte value or test pattern of values. For floppy disks, the number of sectors recorded on each track depends on the type of disk and drive; for hard disks, the number of sectors per track depends on the drive and controller interface.
The original ST-506/412 MFM controllers always placed 17 sectors per track on a disk. ST-506/412 controllers with RLL encoding increase the number of sectors on a drive to 25 or 26 sectors per track. ESDI drives can have 32 or more sectors per track. IDE drives simply are drives with built-in controllers, and depending on exactly what type of controller design is built in, the number of sectors per track can range from 17 to 100 or more. SCSI drives essentially are the same as IDE drives internally with an added SCSI Bus Adapter circuit, meaning that they also have some type of built-in controller; and like IDE drives, SCSI drives can have practically any number of sectors per track, depending on what controller design was used.
Virtually all IDE and SCSI drives use a technique called Zoned Recording, which writes a variable number of sectors per track. The outermost tracks hold more sectors than the inner tracks do, because they are longer. Because of limitations in the PC BIOS, these drives still have to act as though they have a fixed number of sectors per track. This situation is handled by translation algorithms that are implemented in the controller.
Multiple Zone Recording:
One way to increase the capacity of a hard drive is to format more sectors on the outer cylinders than on the inner ones. Because they have a larger circumference, the outer cylinders can hold more data. Drives without Zoned Recording store the same amount of data on every cylinder, even though the outer cylinders may be twice as long as the inner cylinders. The result is wasted storage capacity, because the disk media must be capable of storing data reliably at the same density as on the inner cylinders. With older ST-506/412 and ESDI controllers, unfortunately, the number of sectors per track was fixed; drive capacity, therefore, was limited by the density capability of the innermost (shortest) track.
In a Zoned Recording, the cylinders are split into groups called zones, with each successive zone having more and more sectors per track as you move out from the inner radius of the disk. All the cylinders in a particular zone have the same number of sectors per track. The number of zones varies with specific drives, but most drives have 10 or more zones.
Another effect of Zoned Recording is that transfer speeds vary depending on what zone the heads are in. Because there are more sectors in the outer zones, and the rotational speed is always the same, the transfer rate will be highest.
Drives with separate controllers could not handle zoned recordings because there was no standard way to communicate information about the zones from the drive to the controller. With SCSI and IDE disks, it became possible to format individual tracks with different numbers of sectors, due to the fact that these drives have the disk controller built in. The built-in controllers on these drives can be made fully aware of the zoning that is used. These built-in controllers must then also translate the physical Cylinder, Head, and Sector numbers to logical Cylinder, Head, and Sector numbers so that the drive has the appearance of having the same number of sectors on each track. The PC BIOS was designed to handle only a single number of specific sectors per track throughout the entire drive, meaning that zoned drives always must run under a sector translation scheme.
The use of Zoned Recording has allowed drive manufacturers to increase the capacity of their hard drives by between 20 percent and 50 percent compared with a fixed-sector-per-track arrangement. Virtually all IDE and SCSI drives today use Zoned Recording.
Partitioning:
Partitioning segments the drive into areas, called partitions, that can hold a particular operating system's file system. Today, PC operating systems use four common file systems:
1)FAT (File Allocation Table). The standard file system used by DOS, Windows 95 (Non-OSR2 release), OS/2, and Windows NT. FAT partitions support file names of 11 characters maximum (8+3 character extension) under DOS, and 255 characters under Windows 95 or NT 4.0 or later versions. Under the standard FAT system, 12-bit or 16-bit numbers are used to identify allocation units, resulting in a maximum volume size of 2G.
2)FAT32 (File Allocation Table, 32-bit). An optional file system used by Windows 95 OSR2 (also called OEM Service Release 2 or Windows 95B) or later versions. Under FAT32, file allocation units are stored as 32-bit numbers, allowing for a single volume of 2T or 2,048G in size. FAT-32 support will likely be added to Windows NT in the future.
3)HPFS (High Performance File System). A file system that's accessible only under OS/2 and Windows NT 3.51 or earlier. DOS applications running under OS/2 or Windows NT, or via a network, can access files in HPFS partitions, but straight DOS cannot. File names can be 256 characters long, and volume size is limited to 8G.
4)NTFS (Windows NT File System). A UNIX-like file system that's accessible only under Windows NT. DOS cannot access these partitions, but DOS applications running under Windows NT or accessing a Windows NT volume from the network can. File names can be 256 characters long, and volume size is limited to 8G.
Of these four file systems, the FAT file system still is by far the most popular (and recommended). The main problem with the original 16-bit FAT file system is that disk space is used in groups of sectors called allocation units or clusters. Because the total number of clusters is limited to 65,536 (the most that can be represented with a 16-bit number), larger drives required that the disk be broken into larger clusters. The larger cluster sizes required cause disk space to be used inefficiently. FAT-32 solves this problem by allowing the disk to be broken up into over 4 billion clusters, so the cluster sizes can be kept smaller. Most FAT-32 and NTFS volumes use 4K clusters.
High-Level Format:
During the high-level format, the operating system (such as DOS, OS/2, or Windows) writes the structures necessary for managing files and data. FAT partitions have a Volume Boot Sector (VBS), a file allocation table (FAT), and a root directory on each formatted logical drive. These data structures (discussed in detail in Chapter 22, "Operating Systems Software and Troubleshooting") enable the operating system to manage the space on the disk, keep track of files, and even manage defective areas so that they do not cause problems.
High-level formatting is not really formatting, but creating a table of contents for the disk. In low-level formatting, which is the real formatting, tracks and sectors are written on the disk. As mentioned, the DOS FORMAT command can perform both low-level and high-level format operations on a floppy disk, but it performs only the high-level format for a hard disk. Hard disk low-level formats require a special utility, usually supplied by the disk-controller manufacturer.
There are two types of formats to consider:
-Physical, or low-level
-Logical, or high-level
When you format a floppy disk, the DOS FORMAT command performs both kinds of formats simultaneously. To format a hard disk, however, you must perform the operations separately. Moreover, a hard disk requires a third step, between the two formats, in which the partitioning information is written to the disk. Partitioning is required because a hard disk is designed to be used with more than one operating system. Separating the physical format in a way that is always the same, regardless of the operating system being used and regardless of the high-level format (which would be different for each operating system), makes possible the use of multiple operating systems on one hard drives. The partitioning step allows more than one type of operating system to use a single hard disk or a single DOS to use the disk as several volumes or logical drives. A volume or logical drive is anything to which DOS assigns a drive letter.
Consequently, formatting a hard disk involves three steps:
1. Low-Level Formatting (LLF)
2. Partitioning
3. High-Level Formatting (HLF)
During a low-level format, the disk's tracks are divided into a specific number of sectors. The sector header and trailer information is recorded, as are intersected and inter track gaps. Each sector's data area is filled with a dummy byte value or test pattern of values. For floppy disks, the number of sectors recorded on each track depends on the type of disk and drive; for hard disks, the number of sectors per track depends on the drive and controller interface.
The original ST-506/412 MFM controllers always placed 17 sectors per track on a disk. ST-506/412 controllers with RLL encoding increase the number of sectors on a drive to 25 or 26 sectors per track. ESDI drives can have 32 or more sectors per track. IDE drives simply are drives with built-in controllers, and depending on exactly what type of controller design is built in, the number of sectors per track can range from 17 to 100 or more. SCSI drives essentially are the same as IDE drives internally with an added SCSI Bus Adapter circuit, meaning that they also have some type of built-in controller; and like IDE drives, SCSI drives can have practically any number of sectors per track, depending on what controller design was used.
Virtually all IDE and SCSI drives use a technique called Zoned Recording, which writes a variable number of sectors per track. The outermost tracks hold more sectors than the inner tracks do, because they are longer. Because of limitations in the PC BIOS, these drives still have to act as though they have a fixed number of sectors per track. This situation is handled by translation algorithms that are implemented in the controller.
Multiple Zone Recording:
One way to increase the capacity of a hard drive is to format more sectors on the outer cylinders than on the inner ones. Because they have a larger circumference, the outer cylinders can hold more data. Drives without Zoned Recording store the same amount of data on every cylinder, even though the outer cylinders may be twice as long as the inner cylinders. The result is wasted storage capacity, because the disk media must be capable of storing data reliably at the same density as on the inner cylinders. With older ST-506/412 and ESDI controllers, unfortunately, the number of sectors per track was fixed; drive capacity, therefore, was limited by the density capability of the innermost (shortest) track.
In a Zoned Recording, the cylinders are split into groups called zones, with each successive zone having more and more sectors per track as you move out from the inner radius of the disk. All the cylinders in a particular zone have the same number of sectors per track. The number of zones varies with specific drives, but most drives have 10 or more zones.
Another effect of Zoned Recording is that transfer speeds vary depending on what zone the heads are in. Because there are more sectors in the outer zones, and the rotational speed is always the same, the transfer rate will be highest.
Drives with separate controllers could not handle zoned recordings because there was no standard way to communicate information about the zones from the drive to the controller. With SCSI and IDE disks, it became possible to format individual tracks with different numbers of sectors, due to the fact that these drives have the disk controller built in. The built-in controllers on these drives can be made fully aware of the zoning that is used. These built-in controllers must then also translate the physical Cylinder, Head, and Sector numbers to logical Cylinder, Head, and Sector numbers so that the drive has the appearance of having the same number of sectors on each track. The PC BIOS was designed to handle only a single number of specific sectors per track throughout the entire drive, meaning that zoned drives always must run under a sector translation scheme.
The use of Zoned Recording has allowed drive manufacturers to increase the capacity of their hard drives by between 20 percent and 50 percent compared with a fixed-sector-per-track arrangement. Virtually all IDE and SCSI drives today use Zoned Recording.
Partitioning:
Partitioning segments the drive into areas, called partitions, that can hold a particular operating system's file system. Today, PC operating systems use four common file systems:
1)FAT (File Allocation Table). The standard file system used by DOS, Windows 95 (Non-OSR2 release), OS/2, and Windows NT. FAT partitions support file names of 11 characters maximum (8+3 character extension) under DOS, and 255 characters under Windows 95 or NT 4.0 or later versions. Under the standard FAT system, 12-bit or 16-bit numbers are used to identify allocation units, resulting in a maximum volume size of 2G.
2)FAT32 (File Allocation Table, 32-bit). An optional file system used by Windows 95 OSR2 (also called OEM Service Release 2 or Windows 95B) or later versions. Under FAT32, file allocation units are stored as 32-bit numbers, allowing for a single volume of 2T or 2,048G in size. FAT-32 support will likely be added to Windows NT in the future.
3)HPFS (High Performance File System). A file system that's accessible only under OS/2 and Windows NT 3.51 or earlier. DOS applications running under OS/2 or Windows NT, or via a network, can access files in HPFS partitions, but straight DOS cannot. File names can be 256 characters long, and volume size is limited to 8G.
4)NTFS (Windows NT File System). A UNIX-like file system that's accessible only under Windows NT. DOS cannot access these partitions, but DOS applications running under Windows NT or accessing a Windows NT volume from the network can. File names can be 256 characters long, and volume size is limited to 8G.
Of these four file systems, the FAT file system still is by far the most popular (and recommended). The main problem with the original 16-bit FAT file system is that disk space is used in groups of sectors called allocation units or clusters. Because the total number of clusters is limited to 65,536 (the most that can be represented with a 16-bit number), larger drives required that the disk be broken into larger clusters. The larger cluster sizes required cause disk space to be used inefficiently. FAT-32 solves this problem by allowing the disk to be broken up into over 4 billion clusters, so the cluster sizes can be kept smaller. Most FAT-32 and NTFS volumes use 4K clusters.
High-Level Format:
During the high-level format, the operating system (such as DOS, OS/2, or Windows) writes the structures necessary for managing files and data. FAT partitions have a Volume Boot Sector (VBS), a file allocation table (FAT), and a root directory on each formatted logical drive. These data structures (discussed in detail in Chapter 22, "Operating Systems Software and Troubleshooting") enable the operating system to manage the space on the disk, keep track of files, and even manage defective areas so that they do not cause problems.
High-level formatting is not really formatting, but creating a table of contents for the disk. In low-level formatting, which is the real formatting, tracks and sectors are written on the disk. As mentioned, the DOS FORMAT command can perform both low-level and high-level format operations on a floppy disk, but it performs only the high-level format for a hard disk. Hard disk low-level formats require a special utility, usually supplied by the disk-controller manufacturer.
Types of Disk Formatting
Types of Disk Formatting
There are two types of formats to consider:
-Physical, or low-level
-Logical, or high-level
When you format a floppy disk, the DOS FORMAT command performs both kinds of formats simultaneously. To format a hard disk, however, you must perform the operations separately. Moreover, a hard disk requires a third step, between the two formats, in which the partitioning information is written to the disk. Partitioning is required because a hard disk is designed to be used with more than one operating system. Separating the physical format in a way that is always the same, regardless of the operating system being used and regardless of the high-level format (which would be different for each operating system), makes possible the use of multiple operating systems on one hard drives. The partitioning step allows more than one type of operating system to use a single hard disk or a single DOS to use the disk as several volumes or logical drives. A volume or logical drive is anything to which DOS assigns a drive letter.
Consequently, formatting a hard disk involves three steps:
1. Low-Level Formatting (LLF)
2. Partitioning
3. High-Level Formatting (HLF)
During a low-level format, the disk's tracks are divided into a specific number of sectors. The sector header and trailer information is recorded, as are intersected and inter track gaps. Each sector's data area is filled with a dummy byte value or test pattern of values. For floppy disks, the number of sectors recorded on each track depends on the type of disk and drive; for hard disks, the number of sectors per track depends on the drive and controller interface.
The original ST-506/412 MFM controllers always placed 17 sectors per track on a disk. ST-506/412 controllers with RLL encoding increase the number of sectors on a drive to 25 or 26 sectors per track. ESDI drives can have 32 or more sectors per track. IDE drives simply are drives with built-in controllers, and depending on exactly what type of controller design is built in, the number of sectors per track can range from 17 to 100 or more. SCSI drives essentially are the same as IDE drives internally with an added SCSI Bus Adapter circuit, meaning that they also have some type of built-in controller; and like IDE drives, SCSI drives can have practically any number of sectors per track, depending on what controller design was used.
Virtually all IDE and SCSI drives use a technique called Zoned Recording, which writes a variable number of sectors per track. The outermost tracks hold more sectors than the inner tracks do, because they are longer. Because of limitations in the PC BIOS, these drives still have to act as though they have a fixed number of sectors per track. This situation is handled by translation algorithms that are implemented in the controller.
Multiple Zone Recording:
One way to increase the capacity of a hard drive is to format more sectors on the outer cylinders than on the inner ones. Because they have a larger circumference, the outer cylinders can hold more data. Drives without Zoned Recording store the same amount of data on every cylinder, even though the outer cylinders may be twice as long as the inner cylinders. The result is wasted storage capacity, because the disk media must be capable of storing data reliably at the same density as on the inner cylinders. With older ST-506/412 and ESDI controllers, unfortunately, the number of sectors per track was fixed; drive capacity, therefore, was limited by the density capability of the innermost (shortest) track.
In a Zoned Recording, the cylinders are split into groups called zones, with each successive zone having more and more sectors per track as you move out from the inner radius of the disk. All the cylinders in a particular zone have the same number of sectors per track. The number of zones varies with specific drives, but most drives have 10 or more zones.
Another effect of Zoned Recording is that transfer speeds vary depending on what zone the heads are in. Because there are more sectors in the outer zones, and the rotational speed is always the same, the transfer rate will be highest.
Drives with separate controllers could not handle zoned recordings because there was no standard way to communicate information about the zones from the drive to the controller. With SCSI and IDE disks, it became possible to format individual tracks with different numbers of sectors, due to the fact that these drives have the disk controller built in. The built-in controllers on these drives can be made fully aware of the zoning that is used. These built-in controllers must then also translate the physical Cylinder, Head, and Sector numbers to logical Cylinder, Head, and Sector numbers so that the drive has the appearance of having the same number of sectors on each track. The PC BIOS was designed to handle only a single number of specific sectors per track throughout the entire drive, meaning that zoned drives always must run under a sector translation scheme.
The use of Zoned Recording has allowed drive manufacturers to increase the capacity of their hard drives by between 20 percent and 50 percent compared with a fixed-sector-per-track arrangement. Virtually all IDE and SCSI drives today use Zoned Recording.
Partitioning:
Partitioning segments the drive into areas, called partitions, that can hold a particular operating system's file system. Today, PC operating systems use four common file systems:
1)FAT (File Allocation Table). The standard file system used by DOS, Windows 95 (Non-OSR2 release), OS/2, and Windows NT. FAT partitions support file names of 11 characters maximum (8+3 character extension) under DOS, and 255 characters under Windows 95 or NT 4.0 or later versions. Under the standard FAT system, 12-bit or 16-bit numbers are used to identify allocation units, resulting in a maximum volume size of 2G.
2)FAT32 (File Allocation Table, 32-bit). An optional file system used by Windows 95 OSR2 (also called OEM Service Release 2 or Windows 95B) or later versions. Under FAT32, file allocation units are stored as 32-bit numbers, allowing for a single volume of 2T or 2,048G in size. FAT-32 support will likely be added to Windows NT in the future.
3)HPFS (High Performance File System). A file system that's accessible only under OS/2 and Windows NT 3.51 or earlier. DOS applications running under OS/2 or Windows NT, or via a network, can access files in HPFS partitions, but straight DOS cannot. File names can be 256 characters long, and volume size is limited to 8G.
4)NTFS (Windows NT File System). A UNIX-like file system that's accessible only under Windows NT. DOS cannot access these partitions, but DOS applications running under Windows NT or accessing a Windows NT volume from the network can. File names can be 256 characters long, and volume size is limited to 8G.
Of these four file systems, the FAT file system still is by far the most popular (and recommended). The main problem with the original 16-bit FAT file system is that disk space is used in groups of sectors called allocation units or clusters. Because the total number of clusters is limited to 65,536 (the most that can be represented with a 16-bit number), larger drives required that the disk be broken into larger clusters. The larger cluster sizes required cause disk space to be used inefficiently. FAT-32 solves this problem by allowing the disk to be broken up into over 4 billion clusters, so the cluster sizes can be kept smaller. Most FAT-32 and NTFS volumes use 4K clusters.
High-Level Format:
During the high-level format, the operating system (such as DOS, OS/2, or Windows) writes the structures necessary for managing files and data. FAT partitions have a Volume Boot Sector (VBS), a file allocation table (FAT), and a root directory on each formatted logical drive. These data structures (discussed in detail in Chapter 22, "Operating Systems Software and Troubleshooting") enable the operating system to manage the space on the disk, keep track of files, and even manage defective areas so that they do not cause problems.
High-level formatting is not really formatting, but creating a table of contents for the disk. In low-level formatting, which is the real formatting, tracks and sectors are written on the disk. As mentioned, the DOS FORMAT command can perform both low-level and high-level format operations on a floppy disk, but it performs only the high-level format for a hard disk. Hard disk low-level formats require a special utility, usually supplied by the disk-controller manufacturer.
There are two types of formats to consider:
-Physical, or low-level
-Logical, or high-level
When you format a floppy disk, the DOS FORMAT command performs both kinds of formats simultaneously. To format a hard disk, however, you must perform the operations separately. Moreover, a hard disk requires a third step, between the two formats, in which the partitioning information is written to the disk. Partitioning is required because a hard disk is designed to be used with more than one operating system. Separating the physical format in a way that is always the same, regardless of the operating system being used and regardless of the high-level format (which would be different for each operating system), makes possible the use of multiple operating systems on one hard drives. The partitioning step allows more than one type of operating system to use a single hard disk or a single DOS to use the disk as several volumes or logical drives. A volume or logical drive is anything to which DOS assigns a drive letter.
Consequently, formatting a hard disk involves three steps:
1. Low-Level Formatting (LLF)
2. Partitioning
3. High-Level Formatting (HLF)
During a low-level format, the disk's tracks are divided into a specific number of sectors. The sector header and trailer information is recorded, as are intersected and inter track gaps. Each sector's data area is filled with a dummy byte value or test pattern of values. For floppy disks, the number of sectors recorded on each track depends on the type of disk and drive; for hard disks, the number of sectors per track depends on the drive and controller interface.
The original ST-506/412 MFM controllers always placed 17 sectors per track on a disk. ST-506/412 controllers with RLL encoding increase the number of sectors on a drive to 25 or 26 sectors per track. ESDI drives can have 32 or more sectors per track. IDE drives simply are drives with built-in controllers, and depending on exactly what type of controller design is built in, the number of sectors per track can range from 17 to 100 or more. SCSI drives essentially are the same as IDE drives internally with an added SCSI Bus Adapter circuit, meaning that they also have some type of built-in controller; and like IDE drives, SCSI drives can have practically any number of sectors per track, depending on what controller design was used.
Virtually all IDE and SCSI drives use a technique called Zoned Recording, which writes a variable number of sectors per track. The outermost tracks hold more sectors than the inner tracks do, because they are longer. Because of limitations in the PC BIOS, these drives still have to act as though they have a fixed number of sectors per track. This situation is handled by translation algorithms that are implemented in the controller.
Multiple Zone Recording:
One way to increase the capacity of a hard drive is to format more sectors on the outer cylinders than on the inner ones. Because they have a larger circumference, the outer cylinders can hold more data. Drives without Zoned Recording store the same amount of data on every cylinder, even though the outer cylinders may be twice as long as the inner cylinders. The result is wasted storage capacity, because the disk media must be capable of storing data reliably at the same density as on the inner cylinders. With older ST-506/412 and ESDI controllers, unfortunately, the number of sectors per track was fixed; drive capacity, therefore, was limited by the density capability of the innermost (shortest) track.
In a Zoned Recording, the cylinders are split into groups called zones, with each successive zone having more and more sectors per track as you move out from the inner radius of the disk. All the cylinders in a particular zone have the same number of sectors per track. The number of zones varies with specific drives, but most drives have 10 or more zones.
Another effect of Zoned Recording is that transfer speeds vary depending on what zone the heads are in. Because there are more sectors in the outer zones, and the rotational speed is always the same, the transfer rate will be highest.
Drives with separate controllers could not handle zoned recordings because there was no standard way to communicate information about the zones from the drive to the controller. With SCSI and IDE disks, it became possible to format individual tracks with different numbers of sectors, due to the fact that these drives have the disk controller built in. The built-in controllers on these drives can be made fully aware of the zoning that is used. These built-in controllers must then also translate the physical Cylinder, Head, and Sector numbers to logical Cylinder, Head, and Sector numbers so that the drive has the appearance of having the same number of sectors on each track. The PC BIOS was designed to handle only a single number of specific sectors per track throughout the entire drive, meaning that zoned drives always must run under a sector translation scheme.
The use of Zoned Recording has allowed drive manufacturers to increase the capacity of their hard drives by between 20 percent and 50 percent compared with a fixed-sector-per-track arrangement. Virtually all IDE and SCSI drives today use Zoned Recording.
Partitioning:
Partitioning segments the drive into areas, called partitions, that can hold a particular operating system's file system. Today, PC operating systems use four common file systems:
1)FAT (File Allocation Table). The standard file system used by DOS, Windows 95 (Non-OSR2 release), OS/2, and Windows NT. FAT partitions support file names of 11 characters maximum (8+3 character extension) under DOS, and 255 characters under Windows 95 or NT 4.0 or later versions. Under the standard FAT system, 12-bit or 16-bit numbers are used to identify allocation units, resulting in a maximum volume size of 2G.
2)FAT32 (File Allocation Table, 32-bit). An optional file system used by Windows 95 OSR2 (also called OEM Service Release 2 or Windows 95B) or later versions. Under FAT32, file allocation units are stored as 32-bit numbers, allowing for a single volume of 2T or 2,048G in size. FAT-32 support will likely be added to Windows NT in the future.
3)HPFS (High Performance File System). A file system that's accessible only under OS/2 and Windows NT 3.51 or earlier. DOS applications running under OS/2 or Windows NT, or via a network, can access files in HPFS partitions, but straight DOS cannot. File names can be 256 characters long, and volume size is limited to 8G.
4)NTFS (Windows NT File System). A UNIX-like file system that's accessible only under Windows NT. DOS cannot access these partitions, but DOS applications running under Windows NT or accessing a Windows NT volume from the network can. File names can be 256 characters long, and volume size is limited to 8G.
Of these four file systems, the FAT file system still is by far the most popular (and recommended). The main problem with the original 16-bit FAT file system is that disk space is used in groups of sectors called allocation units or clusters. Because the total number of clusters is limited to 65,536 (the most that can be represented with a 16-bit number), larger drives required that the disk be broken into larger clusters. The larger cluster sizes required cause disk space to be used inefficiently. FAT-32 solves this problem by allowing the disk to be broken up into over 4 billion clusters, so the cluster sizes can be kept smaller. Most FAT-32 and NTFS volumes use 4K clusters.
High-Level Format:
During the high-level format, the operating system (such as DOS, OS/2, or Windows) writes the structures necessary for managing files and data. FAT partitions have a Volume Boot Sector (VBS), a file allocation table (FAT), and a root directory on each formatted logical drive. These data structures (discussed in detail in Chapter 22, "Operating Systems Software and Troubleshooting") enable the operating system to manage the space on the disk, keep track of files, and even manage defective areas so that they do not cause problems.
High-level formatting is not really formatting, but creating a table of contents for the disk. In low-level formatting, which is the real formatting, tracks and sectors are written on the disk. As mentioned, the DOS FORMAT command can perform both low-level and high-level format operations on a floppy disk, but it performs only the high-level format for a hard disk. Hard disk low-level formats require a special utility, usually supplied by the disk-controller manufacturer.
Download videos from Youtube for free
Just a few days back I found some excellent videos on YouTube and wanted to download them to my PC.But as we know YouTube does not allow this facility. So I started searching for some lightweight app which can do this for me. And finally I found this YouTube Downloader which not only allows me to save those youtube videos on my hard disk but also I can convert them to any other file format.
How to use it??
All you need to do is copy the video URL you wish to download and paste it in the space asked which says "Enter the video URL".Once you press the "OK" button it will ask you where you want to save the video, select the location and you are done. Your video will be downloaded at the location selected by you. After that you can convert this video to any other format by using this software or you can use VLC player/FLV player to play the flv file.
To download this application visit the URL mentioned in the "For more details" header below.
OR
There is a simpler way to do this
just visit the site Downloadyoutubevideos and you can give the URL of the video there and download it without installing any software onto your PC.
For more details, visit http://youtubedownload.altervista.org/
How to use it??
All you need to do is copy the video URL you wish to download and paste it in the space asked which says "Enter the video URL".Once you press the "OK" button it will ask you where you want to save the video, select the location and you are done. Your video will be downloaded at the location selected by you. After that you can convert this video to any other format by using this software or you can use VLC player/FLV player to play the flv file.
To download this application visit the URL mentioned in the "For more details" header below.
OR
There is a simpler way to do this
just visit the site Downloadyoutubevideos and you can give the URL of the video there and download it without installing any software onto your PC.
For more details, visit http://youtubedownload.altervista.org/
What Is 3G
Hi friends,
This article is about the latest technology in mobile communications,3G yet to touch the Indian markets.
3G stands for 3rd generation technology.It can be viewed as an upgrade to the present technologies.This service offers very high data transfer both audio and video.
The Hierarchy of technologies are as follows:
1) 1G
This is the first one of this kind.It is analog in nature.
2) 2G
This is the first digital version.GSM(Global System for Mobile) and CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access) we use at present comes under this category.
3) 2.5G
An advancement to 2G and acts as a bridge between 2G and 3G.
4) 3G
5) 4G
This is the future.This already became a reality in some developed countries.
Technically, the main difference between 3G and 2G networks is how quickly data can be sent and received.For example an MP3 download in 2G takes in between 2-5 minutes where as in 3G,11 seconds-1.5 minutes.
Who can benefit from this?
Internet savvy people who need high data speeds will enjoy this technology.
Features:
This offers the combined services of Mobile phone,Laptop and TV.
Speed range is 144KB/sec-2MB/sec
Videoconferencing
Live TV
Global roaming
High-speed Web
Global positioning
Entertainment(Listening music,playing hi speed on line games,book tickets,watch streaming video etc)
News and Information
Apart from these,its applications are very helpful in areas like M-commerce.
This include trading shares,online transactions etc.
First precommercial version of 3G is lanched in May 2001 by NTT DoCoMo in Japan.In the same year,on October 1st,first commercial version was introduced.It became very popular.Since then many countries have been using its services.
What are the drawbacks of 3G
1.High bandwidth requirement
3G requires a bandwidth of 15-20 MH which is very high compared to 2G(30-200 KH).
2.High spectrum licencing fees
For any telecom company to offer this service,government have to allocate the spectrum.A spectrum simply determines the number of users a company can serve or offer this service.So if the spectrum allotted to a company is more,it can feed more number of customers.As the licencing fees is very high,companies find difficult to provide this technology.
3.Huge capital
All the infrastructure laid for 2G services becomes obsolete for 3G.Thus 3G requires seperate infrastucture which is costly.
4.Cost of upgradation
Upgrading to 3G will be an expensive affair.
3G is a truly a revolution in telecommunication.Lets wait and see to what extent Indian customers enjoy this one.
regards,
VIKAS ATHWAL
This article is about the latest technology in mobile communications,3G yet to touch the Indian markets.
3G stands for 3rd generation technology.It can be viewed as an upgrade to the present technologies.This service offers very high data transfer both audio and video.
The Hierarchy of technologies are as follows:
1) 1G
This is the first one of this kind.It is analog in nature.
2) 2G
This is the first digital version.GSM(Global System for Mobile) and CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access) we use at present comes under this category.
3) 2.5G
An advancement to 2G and acts as a bridge between 2G and 3G.
4) 3G
5) 4G
This is the future.This already became a reality in some developed countries.
Technically, the main difference between 3G and 2G networks is how quickly data can be sent and received.For example an MP3 download in 2G takes in between 2-5 minutes where as in 3G,11 seconds-1.5 minutes.
Who can benefit from this?
Internet savvy people who need high data speeds will enjoy this technology.
Features:
This offers the combined services of Mobile phone,Laptop and TV.
Speed range is 144KB/sec-2MB/sec
Videoconferencing
Live TV
Global roaming
High-speed Web
Global positioning
Entertainment(Listening music,playing hi speed on line games,book tickets,watch streaming video etc)
News and Information
Apart from these,its applications are very helpful in areas like M-commerce.
This include trading shares,online transactions etc.
First precommercial version of 3G is lanched in May 2001 by NTT DoCoMo in Japan.In the same year,on October 1st,first commercial version was introduced.It became very popular.Since then many countries have been using its services.
What are the drawbacks of 3G
1.High bandwidth requirement
3G requires a bandwidth of 15-20 MH which is very high compared to 2G(30-200 KH).
2.High spectrum licencing fees
For any telecom company to offer this service,government have to allocate the spectrum.A spectrum simply determines the number of users a company can serve or offer this service.So if the spectrum allotted to a company is more,it can feed more number of customers.As the licencing fees is very high,companies find difficult to provide this technology.
3.Huge capital
All the infrastructure laid for 2G services becomes obsolete for 3G.Thus 3G requires seperate infrastucture which is costly.
4.Cost of upgradation
Upgrading to 3G will be an expensive affair.
3G is a truly a revolution in telecommunication.Lets wait and see to what extent Indian customers enjoy this one.
regards,
VIKAS ATHWAL
Windows Short Cut Keys
Windows Short Cut Keys
task manager shortcut --> ctrl + shift + Esc.
ctrl + shift + clicking on hyperlink - opens page in new window (works in firefox too!)
ctrl + click a file and then draging it creates a copy of that file.
Windows key + e Opens Windows Explorer
Refresh webpage - Ctrl + R
Windows key + e Opens Windows Explorer
ctrl + shift + click a file and then draging it creates a shortcut of that file.
Alt + F4 close the window currently being used
or
If no windows are open then it brings you to a shut down screen
windows key + m minimizes all windows
windows key + f open the search window
windows key + L locks your station
F9-Volume Up
F10-Volume Down
windows key + pause/break key opens up system properties.
if multiple windows are opened:
alt + tab - will show the next page under the currently viewed one
List Of Important Days
This is the list of important days in india.
12-Jan National Youth Day.
15-Jan Army Day.
26-Jan India's Republic Day and International Customs day.
30-Jan Martyrs' Day
24-Feb Central Excise Day.
28-Feb National Science Day.
8-Mar International Women's Day.
15-Mar World Disabled Day.
21-Mar World Forestry Day.
21-Mar International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.
23-Mar World Meteorological Day.
5-Apr National Maritime Day.
7-Apr World Health Day.
18-Apr World Heritage Day.
22-Apr Earth Day.
1-May Workers Day (International LaborDay).
3-May Press Freedom Day.
May (2nd Sunday) Mother's Day.
8-May World Red Cross Day.
11-May National Technology Day.
15-May International Day of the Family.
17-May World Telecommunication Day.
24-May Commonwealth Day.
31-May Anti-Tobacco Day.
4-Jun International Day of Innocent Children Victims of Aggression.
5-Jun World Environment Day.
June(2nd Sunday) Fathers Day.
26-Jun International day against Drugabuse & Illicit Trafficking.
27-Jun World Diabetes Day.
6-Jul World Zoonoses Day.
11-Jul World Population Day.
3-Aug International Friendship Day.
6-Aug Hiroshima Day,
9-Aug Quit India Day and Nagasaki Day.
15-Aug Independence Day.
29-Aug National Sports Day.
5-Sep Teachers' Day.
8-Sep World Literacy Day.
16-Sep World Ozone Day.
21-Sep Alzheimer's Day.
26-Sep Day of the Deaf.
27-Sep World Tourism Day.
1-Oct International day of the Elderly
3-Oct World Habitat Day.
4-Oct World Animal Welfare Day.
8-Oct Indian Air Force Day.
9-Oct World Post Office day.
10-Oct National Post Day.
13-Oct UN International Day for Nationaldisaster reduction.
14-Oct World Standards Day.
15-Oct World White Cane Day( guiding theBlind).
16-Oct World Food Day.
24-Oct UN Day, World development information Day.
30-Oct World Thrift Day.
14-Nov Children's Day ( in India )
20-Nov Africa Industrialization Day.
29-Nov International Day of Solidarity with Palestinian People.
1-Dec World Aids Day.
4-Dec Navy Day.
7-Dec Armed Forces Flag Day.
10-Dec Human Right Day.
23-Dec Kisan Divas Farmer's Day).
12-Jan National Youth Day.
15-Jan Army Day.
26-Jan India's Republic Day and International Customs day.
30-Jan Martyrs' Day
24-Feb Central Excise Day.
28-Feb National Science Day.
8-Mar International Women's Day.
15-Mar World Disabled Day.
21-Mar World Forestry Day.
21-Mar International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.
23-Mar World Meteorological Day.
5-Apr National Maritime Day.
7-Apr World Health Day.
18-Apr World Heritage Day.
22-Apr Earth Day.
1-May Workers Day (International LaborDay).
3-May Press Freedom Day.
May (2nd Sunday) Mother's Day.
8-May World Red Cross Day.
11-May National Technology Day.
15-May International Day of the Family.
17-May World Telecommunication Day.
24-May Commonwealth Day.
31-May Anti-Tobacco Day.
4-Jun International Day of Innocent Children Victims of Aggression.
5-Jun World Environment Day.
June(2nd Sunday) Fathers Day.
26-Jun International day against Drugabuse & Illicit Trafficking.
27-Jun World Diabetes Day.
6-Jul World Zoonoses Day.
11-Jul World Population Day.
3-Aug International Friendship Day.
6-Aug Hiroshima Day,
9-Aug Quit India Day and Nagasaki Day.
15-Aug Independence Day.
29-Aug National Sports Day.
5-Sep Teachers' Day.
8-Sep World Literacy Day.
16-Sep World Ozone Day.
21-Sep Alzheimer's Day.
26-Sep Day of the Deaf.
27-Sep World Tourism Day.
1-Oct International day of the Elderly
3-Oct World Habitat Day.
4-Oct World Animal Welfare Day.
8-Oct Indian Air Force Day.
9-Oct World Post Office day.
10-Oct National Post Day.
13-Oct UN International Day for Nationaldisaster reduction.
14-Oct World Standards Day.
15-Oct World White Cane Day( guiding theBlind).
16-Oct World Food Day.
24-Oct UN Day, World development information Day.
30-Oct World Thrift Day.
14-Nov Children's Day ( in India )
20-Nov Africa Industrialization Day.
29-Nov International Day of Solidarity with Palestinian People.
1-Dec World Aids Day.
4-Dec Navy Day.
7-Dec Armed Forces Flag Day.
10-Dec Human Right Day.
23-Dec Kisan Divas Farmer's Day).
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